Which Digital Cellular Standard Is Used Widely Throughout The World Except The United States?

eight.3 Intercultural Advice

Learning Objectives

Define intercultural communication.
Listing and summarize the 6 dialectics of intercultural communication.
Discuss how intercultural advice affects interpersonal relationships.

Information technology is through intercultural advice that we come up to create, empathise, and transform civilization and identity. Intercultural advice is communication between people with differing cultural identities. I reason we should study intercultural communication is to foster greater cocky-awareness (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Our thought process regarding culture is often "other focused," meaning that the civilisation of the other person or grouping is what stands out in our perception. Yet, the old adage "know thyself" is appropriate, as we become more than enlightened of our own civilization by better understanding other cultures and perspectives. Intercultural communication can allow u.s.a. to step outside of our comfy, usual frame of reference and see our culture through a dissimilar lens. Additionally, equally nosotros become more cocky-aware, we may also go more ethical communicators as we challenge our ethnocentrism, or our tendency to view our ain culture as superior to other cultures.

Equally was noted earlier, departure matters, and studying intercultural advice can assist usa better negotiate our changing world. Irresolute economies and technologies intersect with culture in meaningful ways (Martin & Nakayama). As was noted earlier, technology has created for some a global hamlet where vast distances are at present much shorter due to new applied science that make travel and communication more than attainable and convenient (McLuhan, 1967). However, as the post-obit "Getting Plugged In" box indicates, there is too a digital divide, which refers to the unequal admission to engineering science and related skills that exists in much of the world. People in almost fields volition be more successful if they are prepared to work in a globalized world. Obviously, the global market place sets upward the need to have intercultural competence for employees who travel between locations of a multinational corporation. Perhaps less obvious may be the need for teachers to work with students who do not speak English language every bit their starting time language and for constabulary officers, lawyers, managers, and medical personnel to be able to work with people who take various cultural identities.

"Getting Plugged In"

The Digital Divide

Many people who are now college age struggle to imagine a fourth dimension without prison cell phones and the Net. As "digital natives" it is probably also surprising to realize the number of people who practise not have admission to certain technologies. The digital split up was a term that initially referred to gaps in access to computers. The term expanded to include access to the Internet since it exploded onto the technology scene and is now continued to virtually all computing (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2010). Approximately two billion people around the world now admission the Cyberspace regularly, and those who don't face several disadvantages (Smith, 2011). Discussions of the digital divide are now turning more specifically to high-speed Internet access, and the discussion is moving beyond the physical admission divide to include the skills carve up, the economic opportunity divide, and the autonomous divide. This divide doesn't just exist in developing countries; it has become an increasing concern in the United States. This is relevant to cultural identities because there are already inequalities in terms of admission to engineering science based on age, race, and course (Sylvester & McGlynn, 2010). Scholars contend that these continued gaps will merely serve to exacerbate existing cultural and social inequalities. From an international perspective, the United States is falling behind other countries in terms of access to high-speed Internet. South Korea, Japan, Sweden, and Germany now all have faster average connexion speeds than the Usa (Smith, 2011). And Finland in 2010 became the first state in the world to declare that all its citizens take a legal right to broadband Net access (ben-Aaron, 2010). People in rural areas in the United States are particularly disconnected from broadband service, with about 11 million rural Americans unable to become the service at home. As and so much of our daily lives become online, it puts those who aren't connected at a disadvantage. From paying bills online, to interacting with government services, to applying for jobs, to taking online college classes, to researching and participating in political and social causes, the Internet connects to education, money, and politics.

What practice you think of Finland's inclusion of broadband admission as a legal right? Is this something that should exist done in other countries? Why or why not?
How does the digital divide affect the notion of the global village?
How might express access to technology negatively bear on various nondominant groups?

Intercultural Advice: A Dialectical Approach

Intercultural advice is complicated, messy, and at times contradictory. Therefore it is non ever easy to conceptualize or study. Taking a dialectical approach allows united states of america to capture the dynamism of intercultural communication. A dialectic is a relationship between ii opposing concepts that constantly push and pull one another (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). To put it another manner, thinking dialectically helps usa realize that our experiences ofttimes occur in between two different phenomena. This perspective is especially useful for interpersonal and intercultural advice, because when we think dialectically, we call up relationally. This means we look at the human relationship between aspects of intercultural advice rather than viewing them in isolation. Intercultural communication occurs equally a dynamic in-betweenness that, while connected to the individuals in an encounter, goes across the individuals, creating something unique. Holding a dialectical perspective may be challenging for some Westerners, as it asks us to hold two contradictory ideas simultaneously, which goes confronting much of what we are taught in our formal education. Thinking dialectically helps us see the complexity in civilization and identity considering it doesn't allow for dichotomies. Dichotomies are dualistic ways of thinking that highlight opposites, reducing the ability to see gradations that exist in between concepts. Dichotomies such as skillful/evil, wrong/correct, objective/subjective, male/female, in-grouping/out-grouping, black/white, then on form the footing of much of our thoughts on ethics, culture, and general philosophy, just this isn't the merely way of thinking (Marin & Nakayama, 1999). Many Eastern cultures acknowledge that the world isn't dualistic. Rather, they have equally part of their reality that things that seem opposite are actually interdependent and complement each other. I contend that a dialectical approach is useful in studying intercultural communication because it gets us out of our comfy and familiar ways of thinking. Since so much of understanding culture and identity is understanding ourselves, having an unfamiliar lens through which to view civilization can offer the states insights that our familiar lenses will not. Specifically, we can amend understand intercultural communication by examining 6 dialectics (see Figure viii.ane "Dialectics of Intercultural Communication") (Martin & Nakayama, 1999).

Effigy 8.1 Dialectics of Intercultural Communication

Source: Adapted from Judith Due north. Martin and Thomas Chiliad. Nakayama, "Thinking Dialectically about Culture and Communication," Communication Theory 9, no. ane (1999): 1–25.

The cultural-private dialectic captures the interplay between patterned behaviors learned from a cultural group and individual behaviors that may be variations on or counter to those of the larger civilization. This dialectic is useful because it helps u.s. account for exceptions to cultural norms. For example, before nosotros learned that the United states is said to exist a low-context culture, which ways that we value exact communication as our master, meaning-rich form of advice. Conversely, Japan is said to exist a high-context culture, which means they often look for nonverbal clues like tone, silence, or what is not said for meaning. Notwithstanding, you can find people in the United states of america who intentionally put much meaning into how they say things, maybe considering they are non as comfortable speaking straight what's on their heed. Nosotros often do this in situations where we may hurt someone's feelings or damage a human relationship. Does that hateful we come up from a high-context civilisation? Does the Japanese homo who speaks more than is socially acceptable come from a depression-context culture? The answer to both questions is no. Neither the behaviors of a small per centum of individuals nor occasional situational choices found a cultural pattern.

The personal-contextual dialectic highlights the connection betwixt our personal patterns of and preferences for communicating and how various contexts influence the personal. In some cases, our advice patterns and preferences will stay the same across many contexts. In other cases, a context shift may pb the states to alter our advice and arrange. For instance, an American baron may prefer to communicate with her employees in an breezy and laid-back manner. When she is promoted to manage a department in her company's office in Malaysia, she may again adopt to communicate with her new Malaysian employees the same way she did with those in the United states. In the United States, nosotros know that there are some accepted norms that communication in work contexts is more formal than in personal contexts. However, we also know that individual managers often adapt these expectations to suit their ain personal tastes. This type of managerial discretion would likely non go over as well in Malaysia where there is a greater accent put on power altitude (Hofstede, 1991). So while the American manager may not know to adapt to the new context unless she has a high degree of intercultural communication competence, Malaysian managers would realize that this is an instance where the context likely influences advice more than personal preferences.

The differences-similarities dialectic allows us to examine how we are simultaneously similar to and dissimilar from others. Equally was noted before, information technology's easy to fall into a view of intercultural communication every bit "other oriented" and gear up dichotomies between "us" and "them." When we overfocus on differences, we can end up polarizing groups that actually have things in common. When nosotros overfocus on similarities, nosotros essentialize, or reduce/overlook of import variations within a group. This tendency is evident in most of the popular, and some of the academic, conversations regarding "gender differences." The book Men Are from Mars and Women Are from Venus makes it seem similar men and women aren't even species that hail from the same planet. The media is quick to include a blurb from a research study indicating again how men and women are "wired" to communicate differently. However, the overwhelming majority of electric current research on gender and communication finds that while there are differences between how men and women communicate, at that place are far more similarities (Allen, 2011). Fifty-fifty the language we use to depict the genders sets upward dichotomies. That'south why I suggest that my students use the term other gender instead of the unremarkably used reverse sexual practice. I have a mom, a sis, and plenty of female friends, and I don't feel like any of them are the opposite of me. Perchance a better title for a book would be Women and Men Are Both from World.

The static-dynamic dialectic suggests that culture and communication change over time yet frequently appear to be and are experienced as stable. Although it is truthful that our cultural behavior and practices are rooted in the past, we have already discussed how cultural categories that virtually of usa assume to be stable, like race and gender, accept changed dramatically in merely the past fifty years. Some cultural values remain relatively consistent over time, which allows u.s.a. to make some generalizations virtually a culture. For example, cultures accept dissimilar orientations to time. The Chinese have a longer-term orientation to time than practice Europeans (Lustig & Koester, 2006). This is evidenced in something that dates back every bit far every bit astrology. The Chinese zodiac is done annually (The Year of the Monkey, etc.), while European astrology was organized past month (Taurus, etc.). While this cultural orientation to time has been around for generations, as China becomes more Westernized in terms of technology, business, and commerce, it could too prefer some views on fourth dimension that are more short term.

The history/past-nowadays/time to come dialectic reminds us to understand that while electric current cultural weather are important and that our actions now will inevitably affect our future, those conditions are not without a history. We e'er view history through the lens of the present. Perhaps no example is more entrenched in our by and avoided in our present as the history of slavery in the United States. Where I grew upwards in the Southern United States, race was something that came upwards oft. The high school I attended was 30 percent minorities (mostly African American) and also had a noticeable number of white teens (mostly male) who proudly displayed Amalgamated flags on their clothing or vehicles.

8.3.0N

There has been controversy over whether the Confederate flag is a symbol of hatred or a historical symbol that acknowledges the time of the Civil War.

I call up an instance in a history class where we were discussing slavery and the subject of repatriation, or bounty for descendants of slaves, came up. A white male person student in the class proclaimed, "I've never owned slaves. Why should I take to intendance about this now?" While his argument about not owning slaves is valid, it doesn't acknowledge that furnishings of slavery still linger today and that the repercussions of such a long and unjust menses of our history don't disappear over the grade of a few generations.

The privileges-disadvantages dialectic captures the complex interrelation of unearned, systemic advantages and disadvantages that operate among our various identities. As was discussed before, our society consists of dominant and nondominant groups. Our cultures and identities have certain privileges and/or disadvantages. To empathise this dialectic, we must view culture and identity through a lens of intersectionality, which asks us to acknowledge that we each have multiple cultures and identities that intersect with each other. Considering our identities are complex, no ane is completely privileged and no one is completely disadvantaged. For case, while we may think of a white, heterosexual male as being very privileged, he may too have a inability that leaves him without the able-bodied privilege that a Latina woman has. This is often a hard dialectic for my students to understand, because they are quick to betoken out exceptions that they think challenge this notion. For example, many people like to point out Oprah Winfrey as a powerful African American woman. While she is definitely now quite privileged despite her disadvantaged identities, her trajectory isn't the norm. When we view privilege and disadvantage at the cultural level, we cannot let individual exceptions distract from the systemic and institutionalized ways in which some people in our society are disadvantaged while others are privileged.

As these dialectics reiterate, culture and communication are complex systems that intersect with and diverge from many contexts. A better understanding of all these dialectics helps us be more than critical thinkers and competent communicators in a irresolute world.

"Getting Critical"

Immigration, Laws, and Faith

France, like the U.s.a., has a constitutional separation between church building and country. Equally many countries in Europe, including France, Kingdom of belgium, Federal republic of germany, the netherlands, and Sweden, take experienced influxes of immigrants, many of them Muslim, there have been growing tensions amongst clearing, laws, and faith. In 2011, France passed a police banning the wearing of a niqab (pronounced knee-cobb), which is an Islamic facial covering worn by some women that just exposes the eyes. This law was aimed at "assimilating its Muslim population" of more than v million people and "defending French values and women's rights" (De La Baume & Goodman, 2011). Women establish wearing the veil can now be cited and fined $150 euros. Although the law went into effect in April of 2011, the beginning fines were issued in late September of 2011. Hind Ahmas, a woman who was fined, says she welcomes the punishment because she wants to claiming the police force in the European Court of Human Rights. She likewise stated that she respects French laws but cannot abide past this i. Her pick to vesture the veil has been met with more than a fine. She recounts how she has been denied admission to banks and other public buildings and was verbally harassed by a woman on the street and so punched in the face by the woman's husband. Some other Muslim woman named Kenza Drider, who can be seen in Video Clip eight.2, announced that she will run for the presidency of France in order to challenge the police force. The bill that contained the police force was broadly supported by politicians and the public in French republic, and similar laws are already in place in Kingdom of belgium and are existence proposed in Italy, Republic of austria, holland, and Switzerland (Fraser, 2011).

Some people who back up the law argue that function of integrating into Western society is showing your face. Do you hold or disagree? Why?
Function of the argument for the law is to help in the absorption of Muslim immigrants into French social club. What are some positives and negatives of this type of assimilation?
Identify which of the previously discussed dialectics can exist seen in this case. How do these dialectics capture the tensions involved?

Intercultural Advice and Relationships

Intercultural relationships are formed between people with dissimilar cultural identities and include friends, romantic partners, family, and coworkers. Intercultural relationships have benefits and drawbacks. Some of the benefits include increasing cultural knowledge, challenging previously held stereotypes, and learning new skills (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). For example, I learned about the Vietnamese New Twelvemonth commemoration Tet from a friend I fabricated in graduate schoolhouse. This same friend also taught me how to make some delicious Vietnamese foods that I proceed to cook today. I likely would not have gained this cultural noesis or skill without the benefits of my intercultural friendship. Intercultural relationships also nowadays challenges, however.

The dialectics discussed before touch on our intercultural relationships. The similarities-differences dialectic in particular may present challenges to relationship formation (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). While differences between people'south cultural identities may be obvious, it takes some attempt to uncover commonalities that can form the basis of a relationship. Perceived differences in general besides create anxiety and uncertainty that is not as present in intracultural relationships. In one case some similarities are found, the tension within the dialectic begins to balance out and uncertainty and feet lessen. Negative stereotypes may also hinder progress toward relational evolution, specially if the individuals are not open to adjusting their preexisting behavior. Intercultural relationships may too take more work to nurture and maintain. The benefit of increased cultural sensation is frequently accomplished, because the relational partners explain their cultures to each other. This type of explaining requires fourth dimension, effort, and patience and may be an extra brunt that some are not willing to comport. Final, engaging in intercultural relationships can lead to questioning or even backlash from one's own group. I experienced this type of backlash from my white classmates in center school who teased me for hanging out with the African American kids on my coach. While these challenges range from mild inconveniences to more serious repercussions, they are important to exist aware of. Every bit noted earlier, intercultural relationships tin can take many forms. The focus of this section is on friendships and romantic relationships, but much of the following discussion can exist extended to other relationship types.

Intercultural Friendships

Even within the United States, views of friendship vary based on cultural identities. Inquiry on friendship has shown that Latinos/as value relational back up and positive feedback, Asian Americans emphasize exchanges of ideas like offering feedback or asking for guidance, African Americans value respect and mutual acceptance, and European Americans value recognition of each other as individuals (Coller, 1996). Despite the differences in emphasis, research also shows that the overall definition of a close friend is similar across cultures. A close friend is thought of as someone who is helpful and nonjudgmental, who you enjoy spending fourth dimension with but tin also be independent, and who shares similar interests and personality traits (Lee, 2006).

Intercultural friendship formation may confront challenges that other friendships do not. Prior intercultural feel and overcoming language barriers increase the likelihood of intercultural friendship germination (Sias et al., 2008). In some cases, previous intercultural experience, similar studying away in higher or living in a various place, may motivate someone to pursue intercultural friendships one time they are no longer in that context. When friendships cantankerous nationality, it may be necessary to invest more fourth dimension in common understanding, due to language barriers. With sufficient motivation and linguistic communication skills, communication exchanges through self-disclosure can so further relational formation. Research has shown that individuals from unlike countries in intercultural friendships differ in terms of the topics and depth of self-disclosure, but that every bit the friendship progresses, self-disclosure increases in depth and latitude (Chen & Nakazawa, 2009). Further, every bit people overcome initial challenges to initiating an intercultural friendship and move toward mutual cocky-disclosure, the relationship becomes more intimate, which helps friends work through and move beyond their cultural differences to focus on maintaining their relationship. In this sense, intercultural friendships can be just every bit strong and enduring as other friendships (Lee, 2006).

The potential for broadening ane'southward perspective and learning more about cultural identities is not ever balanced, however. In some instances, members of a dominant culture may exist more than interested in sharing their culture with their intercultural friend than they are in learning near their friend'south civilisation, which illustrates how context and power influence friendships (Lee, 2006). A research report found a similar power dynamic, every bit European Americans in intercultural friendships stated they were open up to exploring everyone'due south civilisation but also communicated that culture wasn't a big function of their intercultural friendships, equally they but saw their friends as people. As the researcher states, "These types of responses may demonstrate that information technology is easiest for the group with the most socioeconomic and socio-cultural ability to ignore the rules, assume they have the ability as individuals to alter the rules, or assume that no rules exist, since others are adapting to them rather than vice versa" (Collier, 1996). Again, intercultural friendships illustrate the complexity of culture and the importance of remaining mindful of your advice and the contexts in which it occurs.

Culture and Romantic Relationships

Romantic relationships are influenced by society and culture, and all the same today some people face discrimination based on who they beloved. Specifically, sexual orientation and race affect societal views of romantic relationships. Although the United States, as a whole, is condign more than accepting of gay and lesbian relationships, in that location is yet a climate of prejudice and discrimination that individuals in same-gender romantic relationships must face. Despite some physical and virtual meeting places for gay and lesbian people, there are challenges for meeting and starting romantic relationships that are not experienced for most heterosexual people (Peplau & Spalding, 2000).

As we've already discussed, romantic relationships are likely to begin due to merely being exposed to some other person at piece of work, through a friend, and so on. But some gay and lesbian people may feel pressured into or just feel more than comfy not disclosing or displaying their sexual orientation at piece of work or perhaps fifty-fifty to some family and friends, which closes off important social networks through which most romantic relationships brainstorm. This force per unit area to refrain from disclosing one's gay or lesbian sexual orientation in the workplace is not unfounded, as it is withal legal in twenty-9 states (as of November 2012) to fire someone for existence gay or lesbian (Human being Rights Campaign, 2012). There are also some challenges faced by gay and lesbian partners regarding human relationship termination. Gay and lesbian couples practise not accept the same legal and societal resource to manage their relationships as heterosexual couples; for case, gay and lesbian relationships are not legally recognized in most states, it is more hard for a gay or lesbian couple to jointly own property or share custody of children than heterosexual couples, and there is little public funding for human relationship counseling or couples therapy for gay and lesbian couples.

While this lack of barriers may make information technology easier for gay and lesbian partners to suspension out of an unhappy or unhealthy relationship, information technology could too pb couples to termination who may have been helped by the sociolegal support systems bachelor to heterosexuals (Peplau & Spalding, 2000).

Despite these challenges, relationships between gay and lesbian people are like in other ways to those between heterosexuals. Gay, lesbian, and heterosexual people seek similar qualities in a potential mate, and once relationships are established, all these groups feel similar degrees of relational satisfaction (Peplau & Spalding, 2000). Despite the myth that ane person plays the human being and one plays the adult female in a relationship, gay and lesbian partners do not have fix preferences in terms of gender role. In fact, enquiry shows that while women in heterosexual relationships tend to practice more of the housework, gay and lesbian couples were more probable to divide tasks so that each person has an equal share of responsibility (Peplau & Spalding, 2000). A gay or lesbian couple doesn't necessarily plant an intercultural relationship, merely as nosotros take already discussed, sexuality is an important office of an private'southward identity and connects to larger social and cultural systems. Keeping in mind that identity and culture are complex, we can see that gay and lesbian relationships can too be intercultural if the partners are of different racial or ethnic backgrounds.

While interracial relationships have occurred throughout history, at that place have been more than historical taboos in the United States regarding relationships between African Americans and white people than other racial groups. Antimiscegenation laws were mutual in states and made it illegal for people of different racial/ethnic groups to marry. Information technology wasn't until 1967 that the Supreme Courtroom ruled in the case of Loving versus Virginia, declaring these laws to be unconstitutional (Pratt, 1995). Information technology wasn't until 1998 and 2000, however, that Southward Carolina and Alabama removed such language from their land constitutions (Lovingday.org, 2011). The system and website lovingday.org commemorates the landmark case and works to cease racial prejudice through instruction.

Fifty-fifty later on these changes, at that place were more Asian-white and Latino/a-white relationships than at that place were African American–white relationships (Gaines Jr. & Brennan, 2011). Having already discussed the importance of similarity in allure to mates, information technology'southward important to note that partners in an interracial relationship, although culturally different, tend to be similar in occupation and income. This can likely exist explained past the situational influences on our relationship formation we discussed earlier—namely, that work tends to be a starting basis for many of our relationships, and nosotros usually work with people who have similar backgrounds to us.

In that location has been much research on interracial couples that counters the popular notion that partners may exist less satisfied in their relationships due to cultural differences. In fact, relational satisfaction isn't significantly different for interracial partners, although the challenges they may face in finding acceptance from other people could pb to stressors that are not as stiff for intracultural partners (Gaines Jr. & Brennan, 2011). Although partners in interracial relationships certainly face up challenges, there are positives. For example, some mention that they've experienced personal growth by learning about their partner'due south cultural groundwork, which helps them proceeds culling perspectives. Specifically, white people in interracial relationships have cited an sensation of and empathy for racism that still exists, which they may non have been enlightened of before (Gaines Jr. & Liu, 2000).

8.3.2N

The Supreme Courtroom ruled in the 1967 Loving v. Virginia case that states could not enforce laws banning interracial marriages.

Primal Takeaways

Studying intercultural communication, communication between people with differing cultural identities, can help united states gain more self-sensation and be amend able to communicate in a world with changing demographics and technologies.
A dialectical approach to studying intercultural advice is useful considering information technology allows united states of america to think near civilisation and identity in circuitous ways, avoiding dichotomies and acknowledging the tensions that must be negotiated.
Intercultural relationships face some challenges in negotiating the dialectic between similarities and differences merely tin also produce rewards in terms of fostering self- and other awareness.

Exercises

Why is the phrase "Know thyself" relevant to the study of intercultural communication?
Employ at least one of the vi dialectics to a recent intercultural interaction that you had. How does this dialectic help you lot empathise or analyze the situation?
Do some research on your land'southward laws by answering the following questions: Did your state have antimiscegenation laws? If and then, when were they repealed? Does your state legally recognize gay and lesbian relationships? If and then, how?

References

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Coller, M. J., "Communication Competence Problematics in Ethnic Friendships," Communication Monographs 63, no. 4 (1996): 324–25.

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Stanley O. Gaines Jr., S. O., and James H. Liu, "Multicultural/Multiracial Relationships," in Close Relationships: A Sourcebook, eds. Clyde Hendrick and Susan Due south. Hendrick (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 105.

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Loving Day, "The Concluding Laws to Get," Lovingday.org, accessed October eleven, 2011, http://lovingday.org/last-laws-to-become.

Lustig, Thousand. W., and Jolene Koester, Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Advice beyond Cultures, 2nd ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson, 2006), 128–29.

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Martin, J. Due north., and Thomas K. Nakayama, "Thinking Dialectically nigh Culture and Communication," Advice Theory 9, no. 1 (1999): 14.

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Pratt, R. A., "Crossing the Color Line: A Historical Cess and Personal Narrative of Loving v. Virginia," Howard Law Journal 41, no. 2 (1995): 229–36.

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